RBT Skill Acquisition: Teaching & Implementation

Skill acquisition represents a core component of applied behavior analysis, focusing on teaching new skills to enhance a client’s independence and quality of life. As an RBT, you’ll be responsible for implementing skill acquisition plans developed by your supervising BCBA. This section covers essential teaching procedures, prompting strategies, and generalization techniques.

C-1: Identify the Components of a Written Skill Acquisition Plan

Essential Components of Skill Acquisition Plans

Target Behavior/Skill Definition:

Clearly defined in observable, measurable terms
Includes criteria for correct/incorrect responses
Specifies response topography (what the behavior looks like)
Identifies relevant contextual factors

Example Definition: “Client will independently request desired items by pointing to corresponding picture icons on communication board within 5 seconds of establishing motivation, across 3 different settings and with 3 different communication partners.”

Instructional Setting and Materials:

Physical environment specifications
Required materials and their arrangement
Group versus individual instruction format
Environmental preparation requirements

Example Setting Description: “Initial teaching will occur at the small instruction table in the therapy room with minimal visual distractions. Materials include a communication board with 5 pictures of preferred items (as determined by recent preference assessment), the corresponding actual items, and data collection materials.”

Antecedent Strategies:

Specific discriminative stimuli (SD) to be presented
Environmental arrangements to set occasion for behavior
Motivating operations to be captured or contrived
Attention-getting procedures if needed

Example Antecedent Description: “Instructor will arrange environment to ensure motivation by restricting access to preferred items before session. Instructor will place communication board in front of client, hold up preferred item within view but out of reach, and provide verbal SD ‘What do you want?’ while establishing eye contact.”

Prompting Procedures:

Specific prompts to be used
Prompt hierarchy and sequence
Fading or transfer procedures
Error correction methods

Example Prompting Description: “Implement least-to-most prompting sequence: (1) Independent opportunity (5-second wait), (2) Gesture prompt pointing toward communication board, (3) Partial physical prompt guiding hand toward board, (4) Full physical prompt guiding finger to specific picture. Following each prompted response, repeat trial with opportunity for more independent response.”

Consequence Strategies:

Reinforcement procedures for correct responses
Specific reinforcers to be used
Schedule of reinforcement
Response to incorrect responses

Example Consequence Description: “For independent or partially prompted correct responses, provide immediate specific verbal praise (‘Great pointing to what you want!’) and immediate access to requested item for 30 seconds. For incorrect responses, implement error correction procedure and do not provide access to item. Initially implement continuous reinforcement (CRF) schedule, fading to intermittent reinforcement after criterion met across 3 consecutive sessions.”

Mastery Criteria:

Performance level required for mastery
Number of sessions/opportunities required
Consistency requirements across variables (settings, people, materials)
Time frame for achievement

Example Mastery Criteria: “Mastery defined as independently requesting using picture communication across 80% of opportunities, across 3 consecutive sessions, with 3 different instructors, and in 2 different settings.”

Data Collection Procedures:

Type of data to be collected
Measurement system to be used
Recording method and materials
Response definitions for data coding

Example Data Collection Description: “Record trial-by-trial data using the attached data sheet. For each opportunity, record the level of prompting required using the following codes: I=Independent, G=Gesture prompt, PP=Partial physical, FP=Full physical. Calculate percentage of independent responses per session.”

C-2: Prepare for the Session as Required by the Skill Acquisition Plan

Environmental Preparation

Physical Space Organization:

Arrange seating to facilitate instruction and minimize distractions
Ensure appropriate lighting, temperature, and noise levels
Remove potentially distracting items from instructional area
Position instructional materials within easy reach but controlled access
Consider client-specific sensory needs in environmental setup

Materials Preparation Checklist:

Gather all required instructional materials prior to session
Ensure materials are in good condition and functioning properly
Organize materials in order of presentation if applicable
Have backup materials available for variability or preference changes
Prepare any visual supports required for instruction
Ensure reinforcers are readily available but controlled

Example Materials Organization: For a matching-to-sample program:

Primary instructional materials (6 matching pairs of picture cards)
Data collection sheets and writing instruments
Visual schedule if used with client
Timer for session/trial timing if required
Token board and tokens if using token economy
Backup reinforcers if primary reinforcers lose effectiveness

Session Documentation Preparation

Essential Documentation Elements:

Clean data sheets with client information completed
Previous session data for reference
Program guidelines/protocol accessible
Graphs or progress summaries if needed for decision-making
Behavior intervention plan if applicable
Communication log for noting questions/observations for supervisor

Data Sheet Preparation:

Enter date, client information, instructor name
Note session number and condition/phase
Review operational definitions and data coding system
Ensure space for reliability data if applicable
Include areas for notes on client responding and variables affecting performance

Motivational Preparation

Reinforcer Preparation:

Conduct brief preference assessment before beginning instruction
Ensure variety of reinforcers available based on recent preference assessments
Control access to reinforcers outside of instructional use
For edible reinforcers, verify appropriate portion sizes and dietary restrictions
For activity reinforcers, ensure all components are available and functioning

Establishing Motivation:

Create state of deprivation for relevant reinforcers when appropriate
Arrange contingencies to increase value of target responses
Consider timing of sessions relative to other activities/reinforcement
Recognize and utilize naturally occurring motivating operations
Plan for potential reinforcer satiation during session

Example Motivational Preparation: “Prior to beginning the requesting program, ensure that preferred items have been out of reach/unavailable for at least 15 minutes. Observe client for signs of motivation (looking at items, reaching toward them, etc.) before beginning teaching trials. Have at least 5 different preferred items available to rotate throughout the session to prevent satiation.”

C-3: Implement Teaching Procedures Using the Basic Principles of Behavior

Discrete Trial Training (DTT)

Definition and Purpose: Discrete Trial Training is a structured teaching methodology that breaks skills into small, manageable components taught through repeated trials with clear beginnings and endings. DTT is particularly effective for teaching discrete skills with identifiable antecedents and responses.

Components of a Discrete Trial:

Discriminative Stimulus (SD): Clear instruction or cue
Prompt (if needed): Additional help to produce correct response
Response: Client’s behavior
Consequence: Reinforcement for correct responses or correction procedure
Inter-trial Interval: Brief pause before next trial (typically 1-5 seconds)

Implementation Steps:

Gain client’s attention before presenting SD
Deliver SD clearly and consistently
Provide prompt according to protocol if needed
Wait for client response (5-second response interval typical)
Deliver consequence based on response accuracy
Record data on response
Pause briefly before next trial
Repeat process for designated number of trials

Example DTT Sequence: For teaching color identification:

Attention: “Look at these” (ensure eye contact)
SD: Place red and blue cards on table, say “Touch red”
Prompt: If needed, point toward red card (gesture prompt)
Response: Client touches red card
Consequence: “Great job touching red!” (deliver token/reinforcer)
Inter-trial interval: 3-second pause
Next trial: Rearrange cards, “Touch blue”

Common Errors in DTT Implementation:

Failing to secure attention before delivering SD
Inconsistent presentation of SD
Inadvertent prompting (looking at correct answer)
Delayed reinforcement delivery
Reinforcing incorrect responses
Inconsistent inter-trial intervals
Failing to record data immediately

Naturalistic Teaching Strategies

Definition and Purpose: Naturalistic teaching approaches embed learning opportunities within typical activities and routines, utilizing natural reinforcers and following the client’s interests. These approaches promote generalization and functional skill application.

Key Naturalistic Teaching Models:

Natural Environment Teaching (NET):

Instruction occurs in everyday settings
Follows client motivation and interests
Uses naturally occurring reinforcers
Embeds multiple learning opportunities throughout activities
Balances structure with natural interactions

Incidental Teaching:

Arranges environment to encourage initiations
Waits for client to initiate interest
Requires response elaboration before reinforcement
Prompts more complex/complete responses
Provides natural reinforcement (access to requested item/activity)

Pivotal Response Training (PRT):

Focuses on pivotal behavioral areas (motivation, responsivity, self-management)
Uses natural reinforcers directly related to the behavior
Reinforces reasonable attempts (not just perfect responses)
Incorporates maintenance tasks among acquisition tasks
Follows client choices and interests

Implementation Guidelines:

Arrange environment to encourage skill use
Observe client for signs of interest or motivation
Create opportunities for client initiation
Use natural cues rather than formal instructions when possible
Prompt as needed, fading prompts quickly
Provide natural reinforcement related to the response
Vary materials and settings to promote generalization
Maintain a playful, engaging interaction style

Example Naturalistic Teaching Sequence: For teaching requesting:

Environmental arrangement: Place desired toys on visible shelf out of reach
Wait for client to show interest (looking at or reaching toward toys)
Create opportunity: “What do you want?” while looking expectantly
If needed, prompt more specific request: “Can you say ‘car’?”
Reinforce request with immediate access to requested item
Embed multiple opportunities throughout play activities

Chaining Procedures

Definition and Purpose: Chaining involves teaching a sequence of behaviors that together form a complex skill. Each step in the chain serves as a cue for the next step and as reinforcement for the previous step.

Types of Chaining Procedures:

Forward Chaining:

Teach first step in sequence to mastery
Once mastered, teach step one plus step two
Continue adding subsequent steps as previous steps are mastered
Best for sequences where initial steps are simpler or highly motivating

Backward Chaining:

Complete all steps for client except the final step
Teach final step to mastery
Gradually teach earlier steps in sequence, moving backward
Best for skills where the final outcome is highly reinforcing
Often more efficient for complex self-care and daily living skills

Total Task Chaining:

Teach all steps in sequence during each teaching opportunity
Provide appropriate prompts for each step as needed
Gradually fade prompts across the entire sequence
Best for learners with some component skills already in repertoire
Useful when steps have natural connections or flow

Task Analysis Development:

Identify the terminal behavior (complete skill)
Break skill into sequential component steps
Perform task yourself to identify missing steps
Ensure steps are at appropriate size/complexity for learner
Validate task analysis by observing competent performer
Individualize sequence based on client’s specific needs/abilities

Example Task Analysis: Hand Washing:

Approach sink
Turn on water
Adjust water temperature
Wet hands
Get soap
Rub hands together with soap (front and back)
Rinse hands
Turn off water
Get towel
Dry hands
Discard towel

Implementation Guidelines:

Select appropriate chaining strategy based on skill and learner
Ensure proper prompting for targeted steps
Maintain consistent expectations for previously mastered steps
Reinforce completion of targeted steps and full sequence
Collect data on independence for each step in sequence
Plan for prompt fading across each step
Program for generalization across settings/materials

C-4: Implement Discrimination Training

Discrimination Training Fundamentals

Definition and Purpose: Discrimination training teaches learners to respond differently to different stimuli. It involves reinforcing responses in the presence of one stimulus (SD) while extinguishing the same response in the presence of another stimulus (S-delta).

Types of Discriminations:

Simple Discrimination:

Responding to one specific stimulus
Example: Raising hand when teacher says “Raise your hand” but not for other instructions

Conditional Discrimination:

Response depends on presence of multiple stimuli or contextual factors
Example: Selecting named item from array (depends on both array and verbal stimulus)

Visual Discrimination:

Responding based on visual properties (color, shape, size)
Example: Sorting objects by color categories

Auditory Discrimination:

Responding based on auditory properties
Example: Following specific verbal instructions among various commands

Implementation Requirements:

Clearly defined discriminative stimulus (SD)
Clearly defined stimulus delta (S-delta)
Consistent reinforcement in presence of SD
Extinction/correction in presence of S-delta
Careful data collection on correct/incorrect responses
Strategic presentation of discrimination opportunities

Teaching Receptive Discriminations

Receptive Discrimination Process:

Present clear SD (typically verbal instruction)
Provide prompt if necessary
Wait for response (selection or action)
Reinforce correct responses
Correct errors appropriately
Systematically vary presentation to teach discrimination

Receptive Language Discrimination Example: Teaching discrimination between “ball” and “car”:

Begin with single-stimulus trials (“Give me ball” with only ball present)
Introduce distracter item in fixed position (“Give me ball” with ball and car present)
Randomize positions of target and distracter
Increase array size gradually
Alternate between instructions unpredictably
Fade prompts systematically
Introduce novel exemplars of each stimulus class

Common Challenges and Solutions:

Position Bias: Systematically vary item positions
Prompt Dependency: Implement careful prompt fading
Rote Responding: Vary SD presentation and sequence
Overselection: Teach attending to relevant features
Weak Scanning: Explicitly teach scanning behavior
False Mastery: Test with novel exemplars/settings

Teaching Expressive Discriminations

Expressive Discrimination Process:

Present stimulus that should evoke verbal response
Wait for response (or prompt if necessary)
Reinforce correct verbal responses
Correct errors appropriately
Vary stimuli to teach precise discrimination

Expressive Language Discrimination Example: Teaching labeling of animals:

Begin with single highly distinct animal (e.g., elephant)
Present picture/object and ask “What is this?”
Prompt correct label and reinforce
Introduce second animal with distinct features
Practice each individually, then intersperse trials
Gradually increase array of animal types
Teach discrimination across different exemplars of same animal

Common Challenges and Solutions:

Articulation Issues: Accept approximations initially, shape toward clarity
Overgeneralization: Teach specific features that distinguish similar stimuli
Echolalia: Introduce delay between model and response opportunity
Limited Vocabulary: Pair teaching with functional use opportunities
Lack of Spontaneity: Create motivating situations for unprompted use

Discrimination Teaching Strategies

Errorless Learning:

Maximizes successful responding by preventing errors
Initially provides strong prompts, systematically faded
Controls difficulty to ensure high success rate
Transfers stimulus control from prompt to natural SD
Avoids practicing error patterns

Most-to-Least Prompting:

Begins with most intrusive prompt necessary for success
Systematically fades to less intrusive prompts
Prevents errors early in learning process
Example hierarchy: Full physical → Partial physical → Gestural → Verbal → Independent

Least-to-Most Prompting:

Begins with opportunity for independent response
Adds increasingly intrusive prompts as needed
Promotes independence by not over-prompting
Example hierarchy: Independent opportunity → Verbal → Gestural → Partial physical → Full physical

Differential Reinforcement:

Provides stronger reinforcement for independent/improved responses
Maintains motivation through learning process
Gradually shapes toward target performance
May provide immediate reinforcement for prompted responses initially, then delay to create motivation for independence

Stimulus Control Transfer Procedures:

Pair controlling prompt with natural SD
Fade controlling prompt gradually
Transfer control to natural SD
Test with natural SD alone
Program for generalization

C-5: Implement Stimulus Control Transfer Procedures

Stimulus Control Fundamentals

Definition of Stimulus Control: Stimulus control exists when a behavior occurs more frequently in the presence of a specific antecedent stimulus (SD) than in its absence. Effective teaching involves transferring control from teaching prompts to natural environmental stimuli.

Indicators of Effective Stimulus Control:

Reliable responding in presence of SD
Absence of responding when SD is absent
Timely responding following SD presentation
Accuracy of response matching SD requirements
Generalization to appropriate similar stimuli
Discrimination from inappropriate similar stimuli

Stimulus Control Transfer Process:

Identify target controlling stimulus (natural SD)
Identify effective prompt (controlling prompt)
Pair controlling prompt with natural SD
Systematically fade controlling prompt
Test response to natural SD alone
Program for generalization and maintenance

Prompt Fading Procedures

Time Delay:

Progressive Time Delay: Gradually increase wait time between SD and prompt
Constant Time Delay: Consistent wait time (typically 3-5 seconds) between SD and prompt
Implementation Steps:
1. Present SD
2. Wait predetermined interval
3. Provide prompt if no response
4. Reinforce correct responses
5. Gradually increase delay (for progressive)
Data Collection: Record prompted vs. independent responses and response latency

Example Time Delay Implementation: For teaching sight word reading:

Initial sessions: Present word card (SD) with immediate model prompt (0-second delay)
Next phase: Present word card, wait 2 seconds before prompting
Increase to 4-second delay when successful at 2-second delay
Final phase: 5-second delay before prompting
Mastery: Independent reading before prompt would be provided

Graduated Guidance:

Physical prompts faded based on learner performance within trials
Continuous adjustment of prompt intensity
Maintains contact while reducing support
Prompt intensity matched to moment-by-moment needs
Implementation Steps:
1. Begin with most supportive physical guidance
2. Gradually reduce physical pressure/contact
3. Fade to shadowing (following without contact)
4. Fade to spatial fading (increasing distance)
5. Fade to complete independence

Example Graduated Guidance Implementation: For teaching spoon usage:

Begin with hand-over-hand guidance throughout movement
Reduce to light pressure at wrist
Reduce to light touch at elbow
Reduce to hovering hand near elbow
Reduce to monitoring from short distance
Fade to independence with supervision

Stimulus Fading:

Gradually changing discriminative stimulus properties
Modifying prompt intensity, size, or salience
Moving from exaggerated to natural stimulus
Implementation Steps:
1. Begin with enhanced/modified stimulus
2. Gradually reduce enhancement
3. Continue until natural stimulus evokes response
4. Test with completely natural stimulus

Example Stimulus Fading Implementation: For teaching letter discrimination:

Begin with target letter (e.g., “B”) much larger than others
Gradually reduce size difference over sessions
Initially highlight target letter with color
Fade color intensity gradually
Continue until discrimination occurs with natural presentation

Response Prompt Fading:

Systematically removing or reducing response prompts
May use graduated steps in prompt hierarchy
Based on learner’s demonstrated success
Implementation Steps:
1. Begin with most intrusive prompt needed
2. Establish consistent correct responding
3. Move to next less intrusive prompt level
4. Continue until independent responding achieved

Example Response Prompt Fading: For teaching sign language:

Begin with full physical guidance of hand movements
Fade to partial physical guidance (light touch at wrist)
Fade to modeling sign with verbal prompt
Fade to verbal prompt alone
Fade to natural stimulus (e.g., presence of desired item)

Transfer of Stimulus Control Challenges

Prompt Dependency:

Signs: Waiting for prompts, not responding to natural SD
Causes: Over-prompting, inconsistent fading, too rapid fading
Solutions:
1. Implement systematic prompt-fading protocol
2. Use differential reinforcement (higher quality/immediate for independent responses)
3. Introduce time delay before prompts
4. Intersperse mastered tasks with prompted tasks
5. Vary SDs and response requirements

Faulty Stimulus Control:

Signs: Responding to irrelevant stimulus features
Causes: Inadvertent pairing, inconsistent presentation, competing stimuli
Solutions:
1. Identify controlling variables through careful observation
2. Systematically vary irrelevant features
3. Highlight relevant features initially
4. Test stimulus control frequently
5. Re-establish correct stimulus control

Generalization Failure:

Signs: Skill demonstrated only with training stimuli/settings/people
Causes: Insufficient exemplars, overly structured teaching
Solutions:
1. Train with multiple exemplars
2. Vary irrelevant stimulus features
3. Train in multiple settings
4. Train with multiple instructors
5. Program common stimuli across settings

Implementation Errors:

Inconsistent prompt delivery
Reinforcing prompted responses equally to independent responses
Fading prompts too quickly or too slowly
Inadvertent prompting (facial expressions, eye gaze)
Failure to transfer to natural maintaining contingencies

C-6: Implement Generalization and Maintenance Procedures

Understanding Generalization

Types of Generalization:

Stimulus Generalization:

Responding to untrained stimuli similar to training stimuli
Example: Using learned greeting with unfamiliar people
Critical for functional application of skills in natural environment

Response Generalization:

Producing untrained responses similar to trained responses
Example: Using novel word combinations after learning component words
Indicates conceptual understanding beyond rote learning

Setting Generalization:

Performing skills in environments different from training environment
Example: Applying classroom-taught skills on community outings
Essential for functional independence across contexts

Across-Person Generalization:

Performing skills with different people than training instructor
Example: Following instructions from parents after learning with therapist
Necessary for skill application in daily life

Programming for Generalization

General Case Programming:

Teaching with sufficient exemplars to cover stimulus variation
Identifying full range of relevant stimulus variations
Selecting representative sample of variation for teaching
Testing with novel examples from same class
Implementation Steps:
1. Identify all potential variations of relevant stimuli
2. Select teaching examples that represent full range
3. Teach to mastery with selected examples
4. Test with untrained examples from same class
5. Supplement teaching if generalization incomplete

Example General Case Implementation: For teaching “cup” identification:

Gather various cups (different sizes, colors, materials, handles/no handles)
Select representative teaching set (plastic cup, coffee mug, paper cup)
Teach identification to mastery
Test with novel cups not used in teaching
Supplement with additional examples if needed

Train Sufficient Exemplars:

Teaching with multiple examples of target concept
Varying relevant and irrelevant features
Continuing exemplar training until generalization emerges
Implementation Steps:
1. Begin teaching with initial exemplar
2. Add new exemplars systematically
3. Vary relevant dimensions across exemplars
4. Test untrained exemplars periodically
5. Continue adding exemplars until generalization demonstrated

Example Multiple Exemplar Training: For teaching requesting:

Teach requesting with first instructor
Once mastered, introduce second instructor
Systematically introduce new instructors, settings, and reinforcers
Test generalization with unfamiliar people periodically
Continue until requesting occurs reliably with untrained people

Train Loosely:

Varying non-essential aspects of teaching procedure
Preventing rigid stimulus control
Promoting flexibility in responding
Implementation Steps:
1. Identify essential components of teaching procedure
2. Systematically vary non-essential components
3. Change order, wording, materials, setting details
4. Maintain consistent contingencies
5. Reinforce flexible responding to natural cues

Example Train Loosely Implementation: For teaching handwashing:

Vary verbal SDs (“Wash hands” vs. “Clean your hands” vs. point to sink)
Practice in different bathrooms
Use different types of soap dispensers
Sometimes have paper towels, sometimes hand dryer
Vary water temperature and pressure
Provide varied post-washing activities

Incorporate Functional Mediators:

Teaching rules or self-instructions that facilitate generalization
Using visual supports that transfer across settings
Teaching self-management strategies
Implementation Steps:
1. Identify functional rule or mediator
2. Teach explicitly as part of skill instruction
3. Prompt use of mediator in training
4. Test application with novel situations
5. Fade artificial mediators to natural ones

Example Functional Mediator Implementation: For teaching appropriate greetings:

Teach rule: “When I see someone for the first time today, I say hello”
Create visual cue card with greeting rule
Practice identifying greeting opportunities with visual support
Prompt application of rule in structured situations
Fade to natural discriminative stimuli (seeing person for first time)

Maintenance Procedures

Definition and Importance: Maintenance refers to the continued performance of acquired skills over time without continued teaching. Maintenance programming ensures skills remain in repertoire after formal teaching ends.

Strategies for Programming Maintenance:

Thinning Reinforcement Schedules:

Gradually reducing frequency of reinforcement
Moving from continuous to intermittent schedules
Approximating natural contingencies
Implementation Steps:
1. Begin with continuous reinforcement during acquisition
2. Once skill mastered, introduce intermittent reinforcement
3. Gradually increase variable ratio/interval requirements
4. Monitor performance to ensure maintenance
5. Return to denser schedule if performance deteriorates

Example Reinforcement Thinning: For teaching on-task behavior:

Initial phase: Reinforce every 1 minute of on-task behavior
When consistent: Reinforce after variable 2-3 minutes
When stable: Increase to variable 4-5 minutes
Final phase: Natural reinforcement (task completion, teacher praise)

Multiple Schedules of Reinforcement:

Different schedules in different settings/conditions
Teaching discrimination of reinforcement contingencies
Promoting conditional discrimination of when/where behaviors receive reinforcement
Implementation Steps:
1. Teach skill with dense reinforcement
2. Identify various contexts for skill application
3. Implement different reinforcement schedules across contexts
4. Use discriminative stimuli to signal schedule differences
5. Gradually thin schedules toward natural contingencies

Example Multiple Schedules: For teaching appropriate requests:

Therapy setting: Reinforcement for each appropriate request
Classroom: Reinforcement for appropriate requests during designated activities
Home: Natural reinforcement for functional requests
Community: Intermittent reinforcement for particularly appropriate requests

Indiscriminable Contingencies:

Unpredictable reinforcement delivery
Preventing discrimination of non-reinforcement periods
Maintaining responding during maintenance phase
Implementation Steps:
1. Begin with predictable reinforcement
2. Gradually introduce variability in reinforcement delivery
3. Vary reinforcers, schedules, and delivery methods
4. Create unpredictability while maintaining sufficient motivation
5. Extend periods between reinforcement opportunities

Example Indiscriminable Contingencies: For teaching compliance with instructions:

Initial: Reinforce each instance of compliance
Intermediate: Unpredictably reinforce approximately 50% of instances
Advanced: Very intermittent “surprise” reinforcement
Maintenance: Occasional unexpected reinforcers for compliance

Self-Management Systems:

Teaching client to monitor own behavior
Transferring reinforcement control to client
Promoting independence from external management
Implementation Steps:
1. Teach self-monitoring skills
2. Implement self-recording of target behaviors
3. Teach self-evaluation against criteria
4. Establish self-reinforcement system
5. Fade external management components

Example Self-Management System: For maintaining on-task behavior:

Teach use of timer for work intervals
Implement self-recording form for task completion
Establish self-evaluation criteria (“Did I complete all items?”)
Create self-reinforcement system (earning preferred activity)
Fade teacher management to periodic checks

Assessing Generalization and Maintenance

Probing Procedures:

Periodic assessment without teaching
Testing in untrained conditions
Evaluating spontaneous performance
Implementation Steps:
1. Identify untrained conditions for testing
2. Conduct probe trials without prompting or feedback
3. Record performance data
4. Compare to baseline and teaching data
5. Determine if additional teaching needed

Example Probe Implementation: For assessing maintenance of social greetings:

Conduct weekly probe in untaught setting
Arrange for unfamiliar person to enter room
Record if greeting occurs without prompting
Document latency and quality of greeting
Determine if booster sessions needed

Common Assessment Schedules:

Immediately after meeting mastery criteria
1-2 weeks post-mastery
1 month post-mastery
3 months post-mastery
When significant environmental changes occur

Documentation Requirements:

Setting conditions of assessment
People present during assessment
Exact presentation of assessment trials
Response definitions consistent with teaching
Comparison data to original mastery performance
Recommendations based on assessment results

C-7: Implement Transition Procedures

Types of Transitions

Activity Transitions:

Moving between different activities within session
Example: Transitioning from table work to play area
Often challenging for clients with executive function deficits

Setting Transitions:

Moving between different physical environments
Example: Transitioning from classroom to playground
May trigger problem behavior due to unpredictability

Person Transitions:

Changing from one instructor/caregiver to another
Example: Transitioning from therapist to parent
May be difficult for clients with limited social flexibility

Schedule Transitions:

Changes to regular routines or expected sequences
Example: Schedule changes due to special events
Often particularly challenging for clients who rely on predictability

Effective Transition Strategies

Visual Supports:

Visual schedules showing sequence of activities
First-Then boards for immediate transitions
Countdown timers for temporal awareness
Visual cues signaling upcoming transitions
Implementation Steps:
1. Create appropriate visual support for client needs
2. Teach client to use visual support during calm period
3. Reference visual before transitions
4. Provide reinforcement for successful transitions
5. Gradually fade prompts for using visual support

Example Visual Support Implementation: For activity transitions:

Create visual schedule with photos of activities
Review schedule at beginning of session
Prior to transition, indicate “First work, Then playground”
Show 5-minute warning with visual timer
Client moves picture from “Now” to “Finished” column during transition

Priming:

Preparing client for upcoming transitions
Providing information ahead of time
Reducing uncertainty about what comes next
Implementation Steps:
1. Identify potentially difficult transitions
2. Provide advance notice at appropriate time
3. Describe what will happen next
4. Use consistent transition warnings
5. Provide additional support for novel transitions

Example Priming Implementation: For location transitions:

Provide 5-minute warning before location change
Describe next location and activities
Show picture of destination if needed
Specify expectations in new location
Answer questions about transition

Transition Objects:

Physical items that move with client across transition
Provides continuity between activities/settings
May serve as comforting familiar element
Implementation Steps:
1. Identify appropriate transition object
2. Teach association between object and successful transitions
3. Prompt client to take object during transitions
4. Pair with reinforcement for smooth transitions
5. Gradually fade as transition skills improve

Example Transition Object Implementation: For person transitions:

Identify comfort item (e.g., small toy)
When transitioning to new therapist, provide comfort item
New therapist incorporates item into initial interaction
Reinforce successful transition with preferred activity
Gradually reduce reliance on transition object

Behavioral Momentum:

Beginning with high-probability requests before transition
Building compliance momentum before challenging transition
Increasing likelihood of transition compliance
Implementation Steps:
1. Identify several high-probability requests (easy/preferred)
2. Present 3-5 high-probability requests in quick succession
3. Immediately follow with transition request
4. Reinforce compliance with transition
5. Gradually reduce high-probability sequence

Example Behavioral Momentum Implementation: For difficult transitions away from preferred activities:

Present easy requests: “Give me five,” “Touch your nose,” “Say your name”
Immediately follow with: “Time to clean up toys”
Provide enthusiastic praise for transition compliance
Gradually reduce to 1-2 easy requests before transition

Common Transition Challenges and Solutions

Transition Refusal:

Signs: Noncompliance, protesting, attempting to stay in current activity
Solutions:
1. Implement clear visual countdown system
2. Use preferred items/activities at destination
3. Embed choices within transition process
4. Initially shorten duration of non-preferred activity
5. Provide specific reinforcement for transition compliance

Transition Tantrums:

Signs: Emotional outbursts, aggression, self-injury during transitions
Solutions:
1. Identify early warning signs and intervene proactively
2. Ensure consistent warning system
3. Use visual supports to increase predictability
4. Provide calming routines during transitions
5. Gradually increase transition demands as tolerance improves

Transition Rigidity:

Signs: Insistence on sameness, ritualistic behaviors during transitions
Solutions:
1. Initially honor rigidity while building rapport
2. Gradually introduce small variations in routine
3. Explicitly teach flexibility through reinforcement
4. Create hierarchy of transition difficulty
5. Use social stories to explain transition expectations

Slow Transitions:

Signs: Excessive time to complete transition, off-task behavior during transition
Solutions:
1. Implement visual timers with clear expectations
2. Provide transition completion contingency (“When you’re sitting at the table, you can have…”)
3. Break down transition into smaller steps
4. Provide prompts at each step of transition
5. Reinforce increasingly efficient transitions

Data Collection for Transitions

Key Measurement Variables:

Latency to initiate transition
Duration of transition
Independence level during transition
Problem behavior occurrences during transition
Prompts required during transition

Example Data Collection:

CopyClient: _______ Date: _______ Observer: _______
Transition: Centers → Lunch

Time Started: 10:58   Time Completed: 11:03   Total Duration: 5 min

Prompt Level:
Step 1 (Stop activity): Independent
Step 2 (Clean up): Gestural prompt
Step 3 (Line up): Verbal prompt
Step 4 (Walk to lunch): Independent
Step 5 (Sit at table): Independent

Problem Behavior: One instance of verbal protest during clean-up

Analysis Considerations:

Compare across different types of transitions
Identify patterns related to time of day
Note transitions from preferred to non-preferred activities
Evaluate effectiveness of different transition strategies
Track improvement over time with consistent intervention